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We've talked a little bit about functions in the past - they're pieces of code that can be executed on command. In fact we've been using functions right since the very start of this process, we just haven't really talked about them in depth - this is what this tutorial is all about.

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You can get visibility into the health and performance of your Cisco ASA environment in a single dashboard. View VPN tunnel status and get help monitoring firewall. Apr 14, 2020  For those who need some hand holding with the Dev C IDE: In the IDE go to FILE, then NEW, then Project, select (in this case) Console Application, give it a name like Sound1 then click OK. A filesave dialog box comes up, create a new folder, might as well call it Sound1, open it and save project file Sound1.dev there. Jan 11, 2017 Since dev-cpp keeps seperate compiter Mingw while Tubo-c was using Borland. However there are several ways to implement/use delay function in cpp code. First way: code#include <time.h> void delay(int delay) int now=time(NULL); int later=now+.

As outlined earlier - a function is simply a piece of code (which may or may not need a value to work properly) that you can execute by 'calling' it. There are a bunch of functions built into the core language, but functions can also be created manually (we'll be learning about this a bit later on). The classic function notation looks like this: functionName();. In the previous snippet we would be calling a function called functionName which doesn't take any values to work properly (if it took any values - we'd put them in the brackets). A classic example of a function is the sqrt function which is defined inside math.h. We used this back in the basic mathematics tutorial, it simply square roots any value you pass to it. If we ever need to pass multiple values to a function, we separate them with a comma - so something like this: functionName(valueone, valuetwo, valuethree);.With this under our belts - let's start learning how to create our very own functions that can execute any preset code for us. For this tutorial we are going to work on creating a function which can add two numbers together.

Believe it or not, you've already got one function in your basic program structure. The main function! Let's dissect it a little so we can use something similar to create custom functions. The first thing it consists of is the function's type - it's an int in this case because the main function needs to be an int to be the int main that the compiler recognises as the program's entry point. The next thing (seperated from the type by a space) is the function's name - in this case it's main, and as I just alluded to, this is so the compiler recognises it as a point of entry. Next we have some empty brackets - these are here to illustrate that the function doesn't take any values, if we wanted a function to take values in (in the case of the function we want to create - we'll need to take two values so we can add them together) then we would put them inside the brackets. From here we simply have some curly brackets, inside which is the actual code we want the function to execute when called.

So firstly - why do functions need a type? Well, it's all to do with return. If a function is of type int, it must return an integer (e.g. return 0 which in the case of the main function illustrates that the program exited without any errors). Values that functions return essentially go in the place where the function was originally called - so the sqrt function returns the result of the square root operation (hence when we put it in a cout or something, the square root value get's inserted at the point we called it). Function can have the type of any version of our function, let's just create a function which can output some basic text - let's stick with the classics and make it output 'Hello World'. So firstly let's decide on a type and name - void is probably a good choice here as we can just use cout in the function rather than making it return anything. For the name, I'm going to go with 'say_hello'. So to make the function, we simply write a definition (the structure of which we've already talked about) before the main function in the code. It's important that it's before, otherwise the compiler won't know what you're talking about when you reference the function in main. The following would work fine for our simply say_hello function (I've just used the basic structure we've already discussed and put a cout inside):

Alternatively, you could put the function definition below the main function and simply leave what is called a prototype before the main function (to tell the compiler not to worry when trying to call the function in main as we define it later). A prototype is essentially just the first line of our function definition (no curly brackets) with a semi-colon afterwards. So if we wanted to use the prototype approach instead of putting the function before (some people prefer doing things this way - a lot of it is down to personal preference), we could do something like this:

Now you've got the function setup (either before the main function, or after with a function prototype before) - you can go ahead and call it from the main function using the process we talked about earlier (while we're talking about this - it's worth noting that functions can call each other if you want this nested-like functionality with multiple functions).

So our code at the moment should look something like this (I'm not going to use prototypes in this example just to avoid confusing anyone who doesn't quite understand them):

On running the above program, you should see that our basic function works! Brilliant, now let's modify it a bit so that it can add two numbers. Firstly let's change its name from 'say_hello' to something more appropriate like 'add_two_integers'. For now we can leave it as void and then make it simply do the addition in the cout - but we'll change this later and make it instead use return. Now let's make it take in two integer values, as it requires these to do its job properly (how else would it add two numbers?) - we write these just like variable definitions apart from they are inside the function definition's brackets (and inside the prototype brackets too if you're using a function prototype). If you want the function to take more than one value (like we do), then you can separate the values with commas. I'm going to call the parameters that my function takes (the proper terminology for the values it takes), 'value_one', and 'value_two'. Our function definition at the moment should look something like this:

From here, we can reference 'value_one' and 'value_two' (or whatever you called the 'variables' in the function definition) in our function and it will refer to whatever values the function was called with. It's important to note that if you try to call the function with two values that do not match the type of those that you put in the function definition (or you specify a different number of values) - the compiler should spit out an error telling you that it can't find the function you're talking about. So with the knowledge that we can reference variables that the function was passed, let's make our function output the addition of the two variables it was passed:

It's that simple, as long as we update our function call so that it uses the correct function name and passes the correct values, everything should work!

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Excellent! The only problem is that our function for adding two integers isn't usable if we want to put the number in a more complex cout, do more mathematics to it, or pass it to another function. Our function's name is also a little bit misleading as the function doesn't actually add two integers, it outputs the addition of two integers. To fix this, let's just change the function type and use return. Since the addition of two integers should always result in an integer, we can use the int function type. Now we've done this we must make the function return a value or the compiler will (should) complain. Let's go ahead and remove the cout line currently in there as it's getting in the way, and replace it instead with a line that returns the addition.

All we need to do now is update the function call in main so we actually use the value it returns somehow - I'm just going to multiply the addition of the two values by 2. The full source code should look something like the following:

And tada, we created our very own fully functional function! This is a very important technique when creating applications/programs using C++ and should be a process you get very used to in the creation process. If you fancy the challenge, try creating a basic function that takes three parameters - it adds the first two, and then multiplies the result by the third parameter if the third parameter is less than 100.

There are a few more things we should probably talk about before this tutorial is over, namely what we can do when some parameters are not specified. The first thing we can do is something called overloading functions. This is a key concept in C++ which allows you to write two or more functions with the same name that take different parameters!

At current, our 'add_two_integers' function will only be called when we pass it two integer values, however we could, if we wanted, write a function with the same name that takes different parameters or parameters of different types, and the compiler would call the correct function for the job depending on the parameters we passed in. Let's say, for example, that we also wanted a version of our function that added floats -- if we renamed the function to 'add_two_numbers' (so that the name makes more sense), we could write both versions of our function (one for integers and one for floats) like so:

In the example above, we could then call 'add_two_numbers' with either two integers or two floats without a problem, and the appropriate function would be called. Similarly, we could, if we wanted, make a function with the same name that just takes completely different parameters, and the compiler would choose the right one, spitting out an error if it can't find one which takes the parameters we're giving it. This concept is very important when creating bigger applications and is used all over the place in the world of C-programming.

The other way we could address the 'issue' of the wrong number of parameters being passed (although not the wrong type), is by using default parameters. This is essentially where we can just give a value to use for a parameter if none are specified, so in our 'add_two_numbers' function we might want to default the values to 0 and 0 if no parameters are passed to it -- this can be accomplished via an equals sign in the function parameter declaration brackets:

In the above we could just call add_two_numbers (); with no problem. It's important to remember that after the first default parameter in a function declaration (e.g. int value_one = 0), all preceding parameters must also have default values assigned to them (and if you think about it, this makes sense).

It heavily depends on usage situations, but function overloads are often preferable to default parameters in situations in which overloads don't cause a whole bunch of code repeating -- this is because mixing default parameters and function overloads can mess things up a little bit. Consider the following in which the compiler doesn't know which function to use:

Your compiler should spit out an error in cases like this - something along the lines of 'ambiguous call to overloaded function', but be careful as this can really mess up your code and cause a lot of confusion!

To tie off this tutorial, let's just touch on a concept called recursion. Recursion, in the context of functions, is where a function calls itself. This concept can seem a little bit confusing at first, however it shouldn't be totally alien to you. Usually it's best when people figure out recursion for themselves, so all I'm going to do to help you along is show you the following example of recursion:

Recursion can be a little mind-bending, and in the above example isn't entirely necessary, but it's a very important topic when programming and is the best solution in a number of situations. If you don't understand the above code snippet, try running through the program line-by-line, starting from the 'countdown' call in 'main', and just do exactly what your program would do upon execution in your mind. We've covered a lot in this tutorial so you should be doing a lot of experimentation to test out the different things demonstrated -- none of the concepts covered should be hard as nails, but you need to make sure you fully understand them before moving on to the next tutorial (as is the case with most of the tutorials in this course - each tutorial builds on things learnt from the last).

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The C++ expression parser supports all forms of C++ expression syntax. The syntax includes all data types (including pointers, floating-point numbers, and arrays) and all C++ unary and binary operators.

Numbers in C++ Expressions

Numbers in C++ expressions are interpreted as decimal numbers, unless you specify them in another manner. To specify a hexadecimal integer, add 0x before the number. To specify an octal integer, add 0 (zero) before the number.

The default debugger radix does not affect how you enter C++ expressions. You cannot directly enter a binary number (except by nesting a MASM expression within the C++ expression).

You can enter a hexadecimal 64-bit value in the xxxxxxxx`xxxxxxxx format. (You can also omit the grave accent ( ` ).) Both formats produce the same value.

You can use the L, U, and I64 suffixes with integer values. The actual size of the number that is created depends on the suffix and the number that you enter. For more information about this interpretation, see a C++ language reference.

The output of the C++ expression evaluator keeps the data type that the C++ expression rules specify. However, if you use this expression as an argument for a command, a cast is always made. For example, you do not have to cast integer values to pointers when they are used as addresses in command arguments. If the expression's value cannot be validly cast to an integer or a pointer, a syntax error occurs.

You can use the 0n (decimal) prefix for some output, but you cannot use it for C++ expression input.

Characters and Strings in C++ Expressions

You can enter a character by surrounding it with single quotation marks ( ' ). The standard C++ escape characters are permitted.

You can enter string literals by surrounding them with double quotation marks ( ' ). You can use ' as an escape sequence within such a string. However, strings have no meaning to the expression evaluator.

Symbols in C++ Expressions

In a C++ expression, each symbol is interpreted according to its type. Depending on what the symbol refers to, it might be interpreted as an integer, a data structure, a function pointer, or any other data type. If you use a symbol that does not correspond to a C++ data type (such as an unmodified module name) within a C++ expression, a syntax error occurs.

If the symbol might be ambiguous, you can add a module name and an exclamation point ( ! ) or only an exclamation point before the symbol. For more information about symbol recognition, see Symbol Syntax and Symbol Matching.

You can use a grave accent ( ` ) or an apostrophe ( ' ) in a symbol name only if you add a module name and exclamation point before the symbol name.

When you add the < and > delimiters after a template name, you can add spaces between these delimiters.

Operators in C++ Expressions

You can always use parentheses to override precedence rules.

If you enclose part of a C++ expression in parentheses and add two at signs (@@) before the expression, the expression is interpreted according to MASM expression rules. You cannot add a space between the two at signs and the opening parenthesis. The final value of this expression is passed to the C++ expression evaluator as a ULONG64 value. You can also specify the expression evaluator by using @@c++( .. ) or @@masm( .. ).

Data types are indicated as usual in the C++ language. The symbols that indicate arrays ( [ ] ), pointer members ( -> ), UDT members ( . ), and members of classes ( :: ) are all recognized. All arithmetic operators are supported, including assignment and side-effect operators. However, you cannot use the new, delete, and throw operators, and you cannot actually call a function.

Pointer arithmetic is supported and offsets are scaled correctly. Note that you cannot add an offset to a function pointer. (If you have to add an offset to a function pointer, cast the offset to a character pointer first.)

As in C++, if you use operators with invalid data types, a syntax error occurs. The debugger's C++ expression parser uses slightly more relaxed rules than most C++ compilers, but all major rules are enforced. For example, you cannot shift a non-integer value.

You can use the following operators. The operators in each cell take precedence over those in lower cells. Operators in the same cell are of the same precedence and are parsed from left to right. As with C++, expression evaluation ends when its value is known. This ending enables you to effectively use expressions such as ?? myPtr && *myPtr.

Operator	Meaning
Expression//Comment	Ignore all subsequent text
Class::Member Class::~Member ::Name	Member of class Member of class (destructor) Global
Structure.Field Pointer->Field Name[integer] LValue++ LValue-- dynamic_cast <type>(Value) static_cast <type>(Value) reinterpret_cast <type>(Value) const_cast <type>(Value)	Field in a structure Xfer nerve vst crack. Field in referenced structure Array subscript Increment (after evaluation) Decrement (after evaluation) Typecast (always performed) Typecast (always performed) Typecast (always performed) Typecast (always performed)
(type)Value sizeofvalue sizeof(type) ++LValue --LValue ~Value !Value Value +Value &LValue Value	Typecast (always performed) Size of expression Size of data type Increment (before evaluation) Decrement (before evaluation) Bit complement Not (Boolean) Unary minus Unary plus Address of data type Dereference
Structure. Pointer Pointer-> *Pointer	Pointer to member of structure Pointer to member of referenced structure
ValueValue Value/Value Value%Value	Multiplication Division Modulus
Value+Value Value-Value	Addition Subtraction
Value<<Value Value>>Value	Bitwise shift left Bitwise shift right
Value<Value Value<=Value Value>Value Value>=Value	Less than (comparison) Less than or equal (comparison) Greater than (comparison) Greater than or equal (comparison)
ValueValue Value!=Value	Equal (comparison) Not equal (comparison)
Value&Value	Bitwise AND
Value^Value	Bitwise XOR (exclusive OR)
ValueValue	Bitwise OR
Value&&Value	Logical AND
ValueValue	Logical OR
LValue=Value LValue*=Value LValue/=Value LValue%=Value LValue+=Value LValue-=Value LValue<<=Value LValue>>=Value LValue&=Value LValue =Value LValue^=Value	Assign Multiply and assign Divide and assign Modulo and assign Add and assign Subtract and assign Shift left and assign Shift right and assign AND and assign OR and assign XOR and assign
Value?Value:Value	Conditional evaluation
Value,Value	Evaluate all values, and then discard all except the rightmost value

Registers and Pseudo-Registers in C++ Expressions

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You can use registers and pseudo-registers within C++ expressions. You must add an at sign ( @ ) before the register or pseudo-register.

The expression evaluator automatically performs the proper cast. Actual registers and integer-value pseudo-registers are cast to ULONG64. All addresses are cast to PUCHAR, $thread is cast to ETHREAD*, $proc is cast to EPROCESS*, $teb is cast to TEB*, and $peb is cast to PEB*.

You cannot change a register or pseudo-register by an assignment or side-effect operator. You must use the r (Registers) command to change these values.

For more information about registers and pseudo-registers, see Register Syntax and Pseudo-Register Syntax.

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Macros in C++ Expressions

You can use macros within C++ expressions. You must add a number sign (#) before the macros.

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You can use the following macros. These macros have the same definitions as the Microsoft Windows macros with the same name. (The Windows macros are defined in Winnt.h.)

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Macro	Return Value
#CONTAINING_RECORD(Address, Type, Field)	Returns the base address of an instance of a structure, given the type of the structure and the address of a field within the structure.
#FIELD_OFFSET(Type, Field)	Returns the byte offset of a named field in a known structure type.
#RTL_CONTAINS_FIELD (Struct, Size, Field)	Indicates whether the given byte size includes the desired field.
#RTL_FIELD_SIZE(Type, Field)	Returns the size of a field in a structure of known type, without requiring the type of the field.
#RTL_NUMBER_OF(Array)	Returns the number of elements in a statically sized array.
#RTL_SIZEOF_THROUGH_FIELD(Type, Field)	Returns the size of a structure of known type, up through and including a specified field.